Nicotine Paralyzes Anxiety and Boosts Mood in Small Amounts

Dr. Peat has written of nicotine’s neuroprotective effects. Nicotine itself inhibits Histone deacetylases (HDAC), which protects the brain from stress and can support the brain in its recovery from stress. HDAC inhibitors have been shown to oppose some of the toxic effects of nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs) on the brain’s nerves. Taking another HDAC inhibitor can actually decrease one’s craving for nicotine, so a supplement like vitamin B3 (niacinamide) can aid smoking cessation.

Some brain receptors increase anxiety, such as β2 subunit containing nicotinic ACh receptors (β2*nAChRs.) Nicotine opposes β2*nAChRs in smaller amounts, but larger amounts of nicotine actually increases the number of β2*nAChRs, which can result in greater anxiety, eventually increasing anxiety past baseline levels.

In place of a multitude of smaller studies, researchers have compiled many of these findings within a single paper, which lies below as an excerpt with a link to the main article on PubMed.

“Preclinical studies of nicotine on mood, anxiety, and aggression-related behavioral states
i. Depression and anxiety
While there are variable effects of nicotinic signaling on behaviors related to depression, numerous studies suggest that decreasing activity of α4β2* nAChRs can improve symptoms of depression (for reviews see Mineur and Picciotto, 2009; Picciotto et al., 2008). Chronic nicotine exposure induces up-regulation of nAChRs, but also profound desensitization of these receptors in vitro (Fenster et al., 1997; Grady et al., 1994). Studies in slices have shown that α4β2* nAChRs can be rapidly and persistently desensitized in the presence of nicotine, whereas α7 nAChRs can maintain their activity (Mansvelder et al., 2002). These data suggest there is decreased ACh signaling through some nAChR subtypes during ongoing smoking, but likely to be restored and potentially increased over time (because high affinity nAChRs are upregulated by chronic nicotine use as experienced by smokers (Fenster et al., 1999) as nicotine is cleared during withdrawal. This phenomenon could also underlie the cyclical mood dysregulation experienced by smokers between smoking episodes, and could therefore perpetuate smoking behavior (Watkins et al., 2000). For example, one group has proposed that a single puff of a cigarette results in occupancy of 50% of α4β2* nAChRs for more than 3 hours, that blood levels of nicotine in a smoker would saturate almost 90% of these nAChRs for hours and that desensitization of these receptors can suppress craving (Brody et al., 2006). This could explain why nicotinic signaling has seemingly paradoxical effects: low dose chronic nicotine has a comparable effect to an antagonist of high affinity β2 subunit-containing (β2*) nAChRs in a conditioned emotional response task in mice (Anderson and Brunzell, 2012), and both nicotine and the nicotinic antagonist mecamylamine can increase serotonin release in the hippocampus (Kenny et al., 2000). Several pharmacological studies have confirmed that nicotinic blockers (antagonists or partial agonists) can alleviate depression-like behaviors in mice, either alone or in combination with monoaminergic drugs (Andreasen et al., 2009; Bacher et al., 2009; Mineur et al., 2009; Mineur et al., 2011; Rollema et al., 2009). Interestingly, commonly used antidepressants can also act as α4β2* nAChR antagonists in cell-based assays (Shytle et al., 2002; Slemmer et al., 2000), suggesting that these medications might also act in synergy with nAChR signaling to be fully effective. Rodent studies have further demonstrated that the effects of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) and norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (NRIs) in models of depression-like behaviors can be potentiated by nAChR antagonists or partial agonists (Andreasen et al., 2009; Andreasen and Redrobe, 2009; Rollema et al., 2009), and that β2* nAChRs are required for antidepressant efficacy of at least one antidepressant medication (Caldarone et al., 2004). Conversely, mice with increased activity of α4β2* nAChRs as a result of a point mutation in the α4 subunit show increased anxiety-like behaviors (Labarca et al., 2001).”
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Reference: Mood and anxiety regulation by nicotinic acetylcholine receptors: a potential pathway to modulate aggression and related behavioral states

Foster’s Peatarian Hygiene Protocol

Glossary

Peatarian – inspired by the research of Raymond Peat, PhD

Catechin – a natural antioxidant found in tea

Ethanol – also called alcohol or ethyl alcohol; found in spirits and frequently consumed to induce drunkenness

Magnesium hydroxide – a form of magnesium sold as a bulk powder

Anti-microbial – kills or inhibits the growth of microorganisms

Anti-bacterial – kills or inhibits the growth of bacteria

Anti-fungal  – kills or inhibits the growth of fungi

Shea butter – fat extracted from the nut of the Africa shea tree; often used in cosmetics or personal hygiene products

Arrowroot – a type of starch extracted from a series of tropical plants

Required Materials

• Water access for bathing
• Towel cloth
• Hydrogen peroxide (3%)
• Ethanol (~90% as in rectified spirits, but lower concentrations [as in vodka] will work)
• Coconut oil (refined)
• Baking soda (aluminum-free)
• Magnesium hydroxide (or milk of magnesia)
• 2 spray bottles
• Optional: Cologne, essential oils or other scents
• Optional: Clean rag

Disinfectant Solution Recipe

• Fill a spray bottle with a 50/50 solution of hydrogen peroxide (3%) and ethyl alcohol (~90%)

Milk of Magnesia Recipe

• Fill a spray bottle with water and magnesium hydroxide (80 mg magnesium hydroxide per mL water)

Deodorant Recipe

• Combine baking soda and coconut oil in a ratio of 3:4 (as with 1 TBSP baking soda and 4 TSP coconut oil); if too dry or abrasive, use a ratio of 1:2 or 1:3 of baking soda and coconut oil

Application

1. Shower, preferably with water passed through a chlorine filter
2. Towel dry
3. Spray the 50/50 mixture of hydrogen peroxide (3%) and ethyl alcohol (~90%) over your entire body excluding your face, ears, nose, mouth, eyes, and hair; alternatively, wet a clean rag and rub down your entire body
4. Allow time for the solution to evaporate
5. Spray the magnesium hydroxide solution over your entire body excluding the places mentioned in step 3
6. Apply a small amount of coconut oil deodorant to each armpit
7. Allow the magnesium hydroxide solution to dry on the skin
8. Dress
9. Optional: Apply a scent of your choice, preferably without toxic additives

Why It Works

Hydrogen peroxide and baking soda act as powerful antimicrobials, as does ethyl alcohol, although with less antifungal potency.  Magnesium acts as a potent antimicrobial and improves the effectiveness of antibiotics.  Vinegar also antimicrobial properties, but the smell makes it undesirable for use as a deodorant.  Shea butter has antimicrobial properties, as does arrowroot tea extract, beeswax, olive oil, honey, and vanilla.

What safe hygiene tips have you discovered over the years?

References

Ajijolakewu, K. A., & Awarun, F. J. (2015). Comparative Antibacterial Efficacy of Vitellaria paradoxa (Shea Butter Tree) Extracts Against Some Clinical Bacterial Isolates. Notulae Scientia Biologicae, 7(3), 264–268. https://doi.org/10.15835/nsb739617

The antibacterial activities of the ethanolic extracts of seed, leaf and stem bark of Vitellaria paradoxa were investigated. The extracts were tested against three clinical bacterial pathogens, Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli and Klebsiella pneumoniae using the agar diffusion and the broth dilution techniques. Ethanolic extracts of the plant parts showed activity against all the bacterial pathogens tested. At the highest extract concentration (200 mg/ml), the leaf extract exhibited the highest antimicrobial activity, while no activity was detected at the lowest concentration (3.13 mg/ml) against the tested isolates. Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus were more susceptible to all extracts of V. paradoxa, while Klebsiella pneumoniae showed the least sensitivity. The efficacy of ethanolic extracts of Vitellaria paradoxa was compared to a commercial antibiotic streptomycin. There were differences in the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of all the Vitellaria paradoxa ethanolic extracts with respect to the type of organism. All extracts exhibited bacteriostatic effects against the tested organisms at the experimented concentrations. Qualitative phytochemical screening of the extracts revealed the presence of saponins, tannins and alkaloids as the active principles of Vitellaria paradoxa’s antimicrobial activity. V. paradoxa could be used as a potential source of antibiotic substance for a drug development.

Al-Waili, N. S. (2005). Mixture of honey, beeswax and olive oil inhibits growth of Staphylococcus aureus and Candida albicans. Archives of Medical Research, 36(1), 10–13. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.arcmed.2004.10.002

BACKGROUND: Honey, beeswax and olive oil mixture (1:1:1, v/v) is useful in the treatment of diaper dermatitis, psoriasis and eczema. The study was designed to investigate effects of honey, olive oil, and beeswax and the mixture on growth of Staphylococcus aureus and Candida albicans isolated from human specimens. METHODS: The following experiments were performed: 1) honey mixture was poured on holes made on plates seeded with S. aureus or C. albicans, 2) the microorganisms were cultured onto media made of honey mixture alone, nutrient agar-honey mixture and Sabouraud glucose agar-honey mixture. The concentration of honey mixture in nutrient agar or Sabouraud glucose agar was 12.5, 25, 33, 50 and 66% (v/v), and 3) honey, olive oil or beeswax was added onto nutrient agar or Sabouraud glucose agar at a ratio of 1:2 (v/v) and then were seeded with S. aureus or C. albicans. RESULTS: Clear zone of inhibition was observed around holes filled with honey mixture; 3.5 mm on media seeded with C. albicans and 4 mm on media seeded with S. aureus. No growth of either microorganism was obtained on media made of honey mixture alone. The minimum concentration of honey mixture in nutrient agar-honey mixture media required to inhibit S. aureus was 50% and 66% concentration was required to inhibit C. albicans growth onto Sabouraud glucose agar-honey mixture media. No growth of S. aureus or C. albicans was obtained on media containing honey whereas mild to moderate growth was obtained on media containing olive oil or beeswax. CONCLUSIONS: Honey and honey mixture apparently could inhibit growth of S. aureus or C. albicans.

Cortesia, C., Vilchèze, C., Bernut, A., Contreras, W., Gómez, K., de Waard, J., … Takiff, H. (2014). Acetic Acid, the Active Component of Vinegar, Is an Effective Tuberculocidal Disinfectant. mBio, 5(2). https://doi.org/10.1128/mBio.00013-14
Effective and economical mycobactericidal disinfectants are needed to kill both Mycobacterium tuberculosis and non-M. tuberculosis mycobacteria. We found that acetic acid (vinegar) efficiently kills M. tuberculosis after 30 min of exposure to a 6% acetic acid solution. The activity is not due to pH alone, and propionic acid also appears to be bactericidal. M. bolletii and M. massiliense nontuberculous mycobacteria were more resistant, although a 30-min exposure to 10% acetic acid resulted in at least a 6-log10 reduction of viable bacteria. Acetic acid (vinegar) is an effective mycobactericidal disinfectant that should also be active against most other bacteria. These findings are consistent with and extend the results of studies performed in the early and mid-20th century on the disinfectant capacity of organic acids., IMPORTANCE  Mycobacteria are best known for causing tuberculosis and leprosy, but infections with nontuberculous mycobacteria are an increasing problem after surgical or cosmetic procedures or in the lungs of cystic fibrosis and immunosuppressed patients. Killing mycobacteria is important because Mycobacterium tuberculosis strains can be multidrug resistant and therefore potentially fatal biohazards, and environmental mycobacteria must be thoroughly eliminated from surgical implements and respiratory equipment. Currently used mycobactericidal disinfectants can be toxic, unstable, and expensive. We fortuitously found that acetic acid kills mycobacteria and then showed that it is an effective mycobactericidal agent, even against the very resistant, clinically important Mycobacterium abscessus complex. Vinegar has been used for thousands of years as a common disinfectant, and if it can kill mycobacteria, the most disinfectant-resistant bacteria, it may prove to be a broadly effective, economical biocide with potential usefulness in health care settings and laboratories, especially in resource-poor countries., Mycobacteria are best known for causing tuberculosis and leprosy, but infections with nontuberculous mycobacteria are an increasing problem after surgical or cosmetic procedures or in the lungs of cystic fibrosis and immunosuppressed patients. Killing mycobacteria is important because Mycobacterium tuberculosis strains can be multidrug resistant and therefore potentially fatal biohazards, and environmental mycobacteria must be thoroughly eliminated from surgical implements and respiratory equipment. Currently used mycobactericidal disinfectants can be toxic, unstable, and expensive. We fortuitously found that acetic acid kills mycobacteria and then showed that it is an effective mycobactericidal agent, even against the very resistant, clinically important Mycobacterium abscessus complex. Vinegar has been used for thousands of years as a common disinfectant, and if it can kill mycobacteria, the most disinfectant-resistant bacteria, it may prove to be a broadly effective, economical biocide with potential usefulness in health care settings and laboratories, especially in resource-poor countries.

Drake, D. (1997). Antibacterial activity of baking soda. Compendium of Continuing Education in Dentistry. (Jamesburg, N.J.: 1995). Supplement, 18(21), S17–21;quiz S46.
The antibacterial activity of baking soda (sodium bicarbonate) was assessed using three different experimental approaches. Standard minimum inhibitory concentration analyses revealed substantial inhibitory activity against Streptococcus mutans that was not due to ionic strength or high osmolarity. Short-term exposure assays showed significant killing of bacterial suspensions when baking soda was combined with the detergent sodium dodecylsulfate. Multiple, brief exposures of sucrose-colonized S mutans to baking soda and sodium dodecylsulfate caused statistically significant decreases in numbers of viable cells. Use of oral health care products with high concentrations of baking soda could conceivably result in decreased levels of cariogenic S mutans in saliva and plaque.

Fitzgerald, D. J., Stratford, M., Gasson, M. J., Ueckert, J., Bos, A., & Narbad, A. (2004). Mode of antimicrobial action of vanillin against Escherichia coli, Lactobacillus plantarum and Listeria innocua. Journal of Applied Microbiology, 97(1), 104–113. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2672.2004.02275.x

AIMS: To investigate the mode of action of vanillin, the principle flavour component of vanilla, with regard to its antimicrobial activity against Escherichia coli, Lactobacillus plantarum and Listeria innocua. METHODS AND RESULTS: In laboratory media, MICs of 15, 75 and 35 mmol l(-1) vanillin were established for E. coli, Lact. plantarum and L. innocua, respectively. The observed inhibition was found to be bacteriostatic. Exposure to 10-40 mmol l(-1) vanillin inhibited respiration of E. coli and L. innocua. Addition of 50-70 mmol l(-1) vanillin to bacterial cell suspensions of the three organisms led to an increase in the uptake of the nucleic acid stain propidium iodide; however a significant proportion of cells still remained unstained indicating their cytoplasmic membranes were largely intact. Exposure to 50 mmol l(-1) vanillin completely dissipated potassium ion gradients in cultures of Lact. plantarum within 40 min, while partial potassium gradients remained in cultures of E. coli and L. innocua. Furthermore, the addition of 100 mmol l(-1) vanillin to cultures of Lact. plantarum resulted in the loss of pH homeostasis. However, intracellular ATP pools were largely unaffected in E. coli and L. innocua cultures upon exposure to 50 mmol l(-1) vanillin, while ATP production was stimulated in Lact. plantarum cultures. In contrast to the more potent activity of carvacrol, a well studied phenolic flavour compound, the extent of membrane damage caused by vanillin is less severe. CONCLUSIONS: Vanillin is primarily a membrane-active compound, resulting in the dissipation of ion gradients and the inhibition of respiration, the extent to which is species-specific. These effects initially do not halt the production of ATP. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY: Understanding the mode of action of natural antimicrobials may facilitate their application as natural food preservatives, particularly for their potential use in preservation systems employing multiple hurdles.

Fratini, F., Cilia, G., Turchi, B., & Felicioli, A. (2016). Beeswax: A minireview of its antimicrobial activity and its application in medicine. Asian Pacific Journal of Tropical Medicine, 9(9), 839–843. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apjtm.2016.07.003

Beeswax is the substance that forms the structure of a honeycomb; the bees secrete wax to build the honeycombs where to store honey. Thanks to its rich hydrophobic protective properties, the beeswax is in fact present within cosmetics and body products. Also, beeswax is used in the food industry: as a film to wrap cheese for maturing or as a food additive (E901) to give shine to the products. Exactly as the honey which it contains, beeswax is also characterized by several therapeutic properties of great interest to us; it is thought to be particularly effective in healing bruises, inflammation and burns. Recently, the interest of researchers has moved even on antimicrobial properties of beeswax although there are still few studies in the literature focused only on the action of beeswax. The few studies showed an antimicrobic effectiveness of beeswax against overall Staphylococcus aureus, Salmonella enterica, Candida albicans and Aspergillus niger; these inhibitory effects are enhanced synergistically with other natural products such as honey or olive oil. This minireview aims to be a collection of major scientific works that have considered the antimicrobial activity of beeswax alone or in combination with other natural products in recent years.

H.M. Adamu, O.A.Ushie, & E. Nansel. (2013). Antimicrobial Activity of Oil from Butyrospermum parkii Seed (Shea Butter). International Journal of Modern Biology and Medicine, 3(2). Retrieved from http://www.modernscientificpress.com/journals/ViewArticle.aspx?oNi57mI9FIF9OKRLCcg8EUgnjOZ+beh5YFCRoLxd85Oc4EubpbBmFUI/Q47z0syB

The oil of the powdered seed of Butyrospermum parkii was extracted sequentially using petroleum ether and hexane by soxhlet extractor. The colour of the oil reveals that the petroleum ether extracts to be light brown and hexane to be pale yellow. 80g of the seed sample of Butyrospermum parkii extracted by hexane yielded 38.8% of oil and petroleum ether yielded 40.25% of the crude oil. The moisture content was 8.3%. The iodine values, Saponification values, Peroxide values, free fatty acid values, of oil obtained from Butyrospermum parkii seed are 53.20% and 51.30%, 215.00 and 212.10 Mg KOH/Kg 8.3 and 7.5meq/Kg 9.20% and 10% for hexane and petroleum ether respectively. The thin layer chromatography of oil obtained from Butyrospermum parkii seed contained two components. The antipathogenic activity shows that they cannot be exploited for use in pharmaceutical, while the study shows that Butyrospernum parkii oil are of high yield, consumption value and due to their saponification value, iodine value, peroxide value and free fatty acid level, the oil could be exploited for use in vegetable oil and cosmetic industries.

Khan, F., Patoare, Y., Karim, P., Rayhan, I., Quadir, M. A., & Hasnat, A. (2005). Effect of magnesium and zinc on antimicrobial activities of some antibiotics. Pakistan Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences, 18(4), 57–61.

Mg and Zn are essential elements in biological system. They are essential for enzymatic activity, maintaining three-dimensional structure of proteins, for the synthesis of nucleic acids and proteins etc. Deficiency of Mg and Zn causes different life threatening diseases. That is why the optimum level of Mg and Zn must be maintained for all biological systems. The experiment was aimed to evaluate the effect of magnesium and zinc on the efficacy of antibiotic agents against different microorganisms. It has been observed that the antibiotic activity of an antibiotic agent increased significantly with concomitant use of Mg salt at a concentration ranging from 3-9 microg per antibiotic disc. Similarly, Zn salt increased the activity of an antibiotic at a concentration ranging from 9-15 microg per antibiotic disc. The experiment revealed that concomitant administration of antibiotic with Mg or Zn salt not only will supplement the deficiency of these electrolytes but also will increase the activity of antibiotics against different bacterial strains.

Kim, S., & Fung, D. Y. C. (2004). Antibacterial effect of water-soluble arrowroot (Puerariae radix) tea extracts on foodborne pathogens in ground beef and mushroom soup. Journal of Food Protection, 67(9), 1953–1956.

Antimicrobial activity of water-soluble arrowroot tea extract was evaluated against Escherichia coli O157:H7, Salmonella enterica Serotype Enteritidis, Listeria monocytogenes, and Staphylococcus aureus in ground beef and mushroom soup. The concentrations of arrowroot tea used were 0, 3, and 6% (wt/wt) for ground beef and 0, 1, 5, and 10% (wt/vol) for mushroom soup. Samples without tea extract were considered controls. Each sample was stored for 0, 1, 3, 5, and 7 days at 7 degrees C for ground beef and for 0, 1, 3, and 5 days at 35 degrees C for mushroom soup. On each sampling time, proper dilutions were spread plated on each pathogen-specific agar. Viable cell counts of each pathogen were performed after incubation at 35 degrees C for 24 to 48 h. For ground beef, Salmonella Enteritidis and L. monocytogenes were slightly suppressed by approximately 1.5 log, compared with the control, on day 7 at 3 and 6% arrowroot tea treatment. For mushroom soup, all test pathogens were suppressed by 6.5, 4.7, 3.4, and 4.3 log at 5% and 6.0, 4.7, 5.0, and 4.3 log at 10% against E. coli O157:H7, Salmonella Enteritidis, L. monocytogenes, and S. aureus, respectively, compared with the control on day 5. Mushroom soup with 1% arrowroot tea also showed 2.3- and 2.7-log growth suppression of Salmonella Enteritidis and S. aureus, respectively, compared with the control on day 5. This study showed that the use of arrowroot tea would effectively inhibit the microbial growth of both gram-negative and gram-positive foodborne pathogens in various foods, especially liquid foods.

Letscher-Bru, V., Obszynski, C. M., Samsoen, M., Sabou, M., Waller, J., & Candolfi, E. (2013). Antifungal activity of sodium bicarbonate against fungal agents causing superficial infections. Mycopathologia, 175(1–2), 153–158. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11046-012-9583-2
Although sodium bicarbonate-NaHCO(3) (SB) has many domestic and medical, traditional and empirical uses, only little scientific documentation of its activity is available. The aims of this study were to investigate the antifungal activity of SB on the three fungal groups (yeasts, dermatophytes and molds) responsible for human skin and nail infections. We first evaluated the in vitro antifungal activity of SB on 70 fungal strains isolated from skin and nail infections: 40 dermatophytes, 18 yeasts and 12 molds. A concentration of 10 g/L SB inhibited the growth of 80% of all the fungal isolates tested on Sabouraud dextrose agar. The minimal inhibitory concentration 90 (MIC90) of SB measured on Sabouraud dextrose agar, Sabouraud dextrose broth and potato dextrose broth was 5 g/L for the yeasts, 20 g/L for the dermatophytes and 40 g/L for the molds. In a second step, we prospectively evaluated the ex vivo antifungal activity of SB on 24 infected (15 dermatophytes, 7 yeasts and 2 molds) clinical specimens (15 nails and 9 skin scrapings). The fungal growth was completely inhibited for 19 (79%) specimens and reduced for 4 (17%) specimens after 7 days of incubation on Sabouraud dextrose-chloramphenicol agar supplemented with 10 g/L of SB as compared to Sabouraud dextrose-chloramphenicol agar without SB. In conclusion, we documented the antifungal activity of SB on the most common agents of cutaneous fungal infection and onychomycosis, and we specified the effective concentrations for the different groups of pathogenic fungi. The mechanism of action of SB has yet to be explored.

Lock, J. Y., Draganov, M., Whall, A., Dhillon, S., Upadhyayula, S., Vullev, V. I., & Liu, H. (2012). Antimicrobial properties of biodegradable magnesium for next generation ureteral stent applications. Conference Proceedings: … Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society. IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society. Annual Conference, 2012, 1378–1381. https://doi.org/10.1109/EMBC.2012.6346195

Bacterial infection often causes clinical complications and failure of indwelling medical devices. This is a major problem of current ureteral stents, which are used clinically to treat the blockage of ureteral canals. This study investigates the effectiveness and applicability of magnesium as a novel biodegradable ureteral stent material that has inherent antimicrobial properties. Incubating Escherichia coli with the magnesium samples showed a decrease in the bacterial cell density as compared with the currently used commercial polyurethane stent. Magnesium degradation in the immersion solutions (artificial urine, luria bertani broth, and deionized water) resulted in an alkaline pH shift. Antimicrobial and biodegradation properties of magnesium make it an attractive alternative as next-generation ureteral stent material.

Loewenthal, K. (1961). The Antifungal Effect of 70% Ethyl Alcohol: A Laboratory Study. Archives of Dermatology, 83(5), 803–805. https://doi.org/10.1001/archderm.1961.01580110091014
<p>Cleaning of the skin, hair, and nails with 70% ethyl alcohol is a generally accepted method of decontaminating lesions prior to the collection of material for fungus cultures. The use of alcohol at this concentration is based on the assumption that its relatively high bactericidal index but low fungicidal index aids in preparing pure fungus cultures without interfering in the exactness of the cultural tests.^1-3There are no known experimental data, however, to justify this assumption. On the contrary, 2 observations recorded in the literature suggest that reliance on the presumable inefficiency of ethyl alcohol as an antifungal agent is not entirely warranted. Emmons, in 1933, investigating the fungicidal effect of common skin disinfectants, observed that a 30-minute exposure to 85% ethyl alcohol was lethal to spores of Trichophyton gypseum.⁴Spaulding (1939), in studying chemical sterilization of surgical instruments, noted that Candida albicans did not grow after a</p>

Mandal, M. D., & Mandal, S. (2011). Honey: its medicinal property and antibacterial activity. Asian Pacific Journal of Tropical Biomedicine, 1(2), 154–160. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2221-1691(11)60016-6

Indeed, medicinal importance of honey has been documented in the world’s oldest medical literatures, and since the ancient times, it has been known to possess antimicrobial property as well as wound-healing activity. The healing property of honey is due to the fact that it offers antibacterial activity, maintains a moist wound condition, and its high viscosity helps to provide a protective barrier to prevent infection. Its immunomodulatory property is relevant to wound repair too. The antimicrobial activity in most honeys is due to the enzymatic production of hydrogen peroxide. However, another kind of honey, called non-peroxide honey (viz., manuka honey), displays significant antibacterial effects even when the hydrogen peroxide activity is blocked. Its mechanism may be related to the low pH level of honey and its high sugar content (high osmolarity) that is enough to hinder the growth of microbes. The medical grade honeys have potent in vitro bactericidal activity against antibiotic-resistant bacteria causing several life-threatening infections to humans. But, there is a large variation in the antimicrobial activity of some natural honeys, which is due to spatial and temporal variation in sources of nectar. Thus, identification and characterization of the active principle(s) may provide valuable information on the quality and possible therapeutic potential of honeys (against several health disorders of humans), and hence we discussed the medicinal property of honeys with emphasis on their antibacterial activities.

McDonnell, G., & Russell, A. D. (1999). Antiseptics and disinfectants: activity, action, and resistance. Clinical Microbiology Reviews, 12(1), 147–179.
Antiseptics and disinfectants are extensively used in hospitals and other health care settings for a variety of topical and hard-surface applications. A wide variety of active chemical agents (biocides) are found in these products, many of which have been used for hundreds of years, including alcohols, phenols, iodine, and chlorine. Most of these active agents demonstrate broad-spectrum antimicrobial activity; however, little is known about the mode of action of these agents in comparison to antibiotics. This review considers what is known about the mode of action and spectrum of activity of antiseptics and disinfectants. The widespread use of these products has prompted some speculation on the development of microbial resistance, in particular whether antibiotic resistance is induced by antiseptics or disinfectants. Known mechanisms of microbial resistance (both intrinsic and acquired) to biocides are reviewed, with emphasis on the clinical implications of these reports.

Miyasaki, K. T., Genco, R. J., & Wilson, M. E. (1986). Antimicrobial properties of hydrogen peroxide and sodium bicarbonate individually and in combination against selected oral, gram-negative, facultative bacteria. Journal of Dental Research, 65(9), 1142–1148. https://doi.org/10.1177/00220345860650090601
The topical application of hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) and sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3), individually and in combination, has been used empirically in the treatment of periodontal diseases. In this study, we examined both minimum inhibitory concentrations (MIC) and minimum bactericidal concentrations (MBC) of these disinfectants individually and in combination against selected facultative, Gram-negative oral bacteria in a microtiter dilution assay. The bacteria studied included Actinobacillus actinomycetemcomitans, Haemophilus aphrophilus, Eikenella corrodens, and Capnocytophaga gingivalis. These bacteria exhibited MBC (one hr) values ranging from 75 mumol/L to greater than 10 mmol/L and MIC from less than 5 to 500 mumol/L for H2O2. The tested bacteria exhibited MIC values for NaHCO3 of from 23 to 182 mmol/L, and the MBC (one hr) exceeded 728 mmol/L for most of the strains examined. At sublethal (sub-MIC) concentrations, sodium bicarbonate antagonized the ability of H2O2 to inhibit bacterial growth in MIC assays, but sublethal concentrations of H2O2 had no effect on the MIC values of NaHCO3. Lethal concentrations of H2O2 and NaHCO3 exhibited synergistic antimicrobial activity in combination in one-hour bactericidal assays. Since the bactericidal properties of these antimicrobial agents are synergistic, we conclude that it may be rational to use them in combination to treat certain forms of periodontal disease. Also, lower and perhaps safer concentrations of H2O2 can be used in combination with NaHCO3 when oxidative antimicrobial chemotherapy is indicated.

Rogawansamy, S., Gaskin, S., Taylor, M., & Pisaniello, D. (2015). An evaluation of antifungal agents for the treatment of fungal contamination in indoor air environments. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 12(6), 6319–6332. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph120606319

Fungal contamination in indoor environments has been associated with adverse health effects for the inhabitants. Remediation of fungal contamination requires removal of the fungi present and modifying the indoor environment to become less favourable to growth.  This may include treatment of indoor environments with an antifungal agent to prevent future growth. However there are limited published data or advice on chemical agents suitable for indoor fungal remediation. The aim of this study was to assess the relative efficacies of five commercially available cleaning agents with published or anecdotal use for indoor fungal remediation. The five agents included two common multi-purpose industrial disinfectants (Cavicide® and Virkon®), 70% ethanol, vinegar (4.0%-4.2% acetic acid), and a plant-derived compound (tea tree (Melaleuca alternifolia) oil) tested in both a liquid and vapour form. Tea tree oil has recently generated interest for its antimicrobial efficacy in clinical settings, but has not been widely employed for fungal remediation. Each antifungal agent was assessed for fungal growth inhibition using a disc diffusion method against a representative species from two common fungal genera, (Aspergillus fumigatus and Penicillium chrysogenum), which were isolated from air samples and are commonly found in indoor air. Tea tree oil demonstrated the greatest inhibitory effect on the growth of both fungi, applied in either a liquid or vapour form. Cavicide® and Virkon® demonstrated similar, although less, growth inhibition of both genera. Vinegar (4.0%-4.2% acetic acid) was found to only inhibit the growth of P. chrysogenum, while 70% ethanol was found to have no inhibitory effect on the growth of either fungi. There was a notable inhibition in sporulation, distinct from growth inhibition after exposure to tea tree oil, Virkon®, Cavicide® and vinegar. Results demonstrate that common cleaning and antifungal agents differ in their capacity to inhibit the growth of fungal genera found in the indoor air environment. The results indicate that tea tree oil was the most effective antifungal agent tested, and may have industrial application for the remediation of fungal contamination in residential and occupational buildings.

Szymańska, J. (2006). Antifungal efficacy of hydrogen peroxide in dental unit waterline disinfection. Annals of Agricultural and Environmental Medicine: AAEM, 13(2), 313–317.

The concentration and composition of fungal flora in dental unit waterlines (DUWL) were evaluated. For this purpose, water samples from unit reservoirs and high-speed handpieces, and biofilm samples from the waterline walls from units were collected. Subsequently, analogous samples from DUWL were taken before and after disinfection using agent containing hydrogen peroxide. In the examined samples, the yeast-like fungi Candida albicans and Candida curvata were found. The following species of mould were also identified: Aspergillus amstelodami, Aspergillus fumigatus, Aspergillus glaucus group, Aspergillus (=Eurotium herbariorum) repens, Citromyces spp., Geotrichum candidum, Penicillium (glabrum) frequentans, Penicillium pusillum, Penicillium turolense and Sclerotium sclerotiorum (Sclerotinia sclerotiorum). Before disinfection, Candida curvata and Candida albicans constituted the greatest proportion of the total fungi in the reservoirs water; in the water of handpieces–Candida albicans and Aspergillus glaucus group; and in the biofilm samples–Aspergillus glaucus group and Candida albicans. After disinfection, in all 3 kinds of samples, Candida albicans prevailed, constituting from 31.2-85.7 % of the total fungi. The application of agent containing hydrogen peroxide caused a significant decrease both in the number of total fungi and individual fungal species, which confirms the product effectiveness in fungal decontamination of DUWL.

Taylor, P. W., Hamilton-Miller, J. M. T., & Stapleton, P. D. (2005). Antimicrobial properties of green tea catechins. Food Science and Technology Bulletin, 2, 71–81.

Extracts of leaves from the tea plant Camellia sinensis contain polyphenolic components with activity against a wide spectrum of microbes. Studies conducted over the last 20 years have shown that the green tea polyphenolic catechins, in particular (−)-epigallocatechin gallate (EGCg) and (−)-epicatechin gallate (ECg), can inhibit the growth of a wide range of Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacterial species with moderate potency. Evidence is emerging that these molecules may be useful in the control of common oral infections, such as dental caries and periodontal disease. Sub-inhibitory concentrations of EGCg and ECg can suppress the expression of bacterial virulence factors and can reverse the resistance of the opportunistic pathogen Staphylococcus aureus to β-lactam antibiotics. For example, relatively low concentrations of ECg can sensitize methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA) clinical isolates to levels of oxacillin that can be readily achieved in clinical practice. Catechin gallates such as ECg intercalate into phopsholipid bilayers and it is likely that they affect both virulence and antibiotic resistance by perturbing the function of key processes associated with the bacterial cytoplasmic membrane.

Cold Weather Wrecks Your Thyroid

Researchers examined the effects of temperature and food intake on thyroid function in 4-week-old pigs over a period 6 weeks:

“The separate effects of ambient temperature and energy intake on the metabolism of thyroid hormones in the young pig have been investigated. Piglets were kept singly from 4 weeks of age at 10 or 35 degrees C on a high (H), or low (L) energy intake, such that H = 2L.”

They measured their thyroid hormones 16-21 hours after their last meal when the pigs reached 10 weeks old:

“At the tenth week of age blood samples were taken 16-21 h after the last meal for the determination of plasma concentrations of thyroxine (T4) and 3,5,3′-triiodothyronine (T3).”

They then measured the fractional disappearance rate of thyroid hormones, which shows represents how fast the body destroys its thyroid hormone, for example in extreme stress:

“At the end of the tenth week of age the fractional disappearance rate (K) of T4 was determined and finally the K value for T3 was estimated.”

They found that a high food intake increased the pigs’ production of thyroid hormones:

“Plasma concentrations of T4 and T3 were greater in animals on a high intake than in those on a low intake, (P less than 0.02), but the temperature at which the animals lived had no significant effect.”

Pigs destroyed their own thyroid hormones faster in cold temperatures:

“The values of K for T4 and T3 were greater at 10 than at 35 degrees C (P less than 0.010 and P less than 0.05), and energy intake had no significant effect.”

Cold temperatures and high caloric intakes significantly increased their needs for thyroid hormone:

“Calculations of the catabolic rates in nmol/kg X h revealed that for T4 the rate was greater at 10 than at 35 degrees C (P less than 0.001) and on a high than on a low intake (P less than 0.01).  Similar differences were found between the mean values of T3 with respect to both temperature and energy intake, but the variance was large and they did not reach statistical significance.  It is concluded that the metabolism of thyroid hormones is influenced independently by both ambient temperature and energy intake.”

References

Macari, M., Dauncey, M. J., Ramsden, D. B., & Ingram, D. L. (1983). Thyroid hormone metabolism after acclimatization to warm or cold temperature under conditions of high or low energy intake. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Physiology (Cambridge, England), 68(4), 709–718. The separate effects of ambient temperature and energy intake on the metabolism of thyroid hormones in the young pig have been investigated. Piglets were kept singly from 4 weeks of age at 10 or 35 degrees C on a high (H), or low (L) energy intake, such that H = 2L. At the tenth week of age blood samples were taken 16-21 h after the last meal for the determination of plasma concentrations of thyroxine (T4) and 3,5,3’-triiodothyronine (T3). At the end of the tenth week of age the fractional disappearance rate (K) of T4 was determined and finally the K value for T3 was estimated. Plasma concentrations of T4 and T3 were greater in animals on a high intake than in those on a low intake, (P less than 0.02), but the temperature at which the animals lived had no significant effect. The values of K for T4 and T3 were greater at 10 than at 35 degrees C (P less than 0.010 and P less than 0.05), and energy intake had no significant effect. Calculations of the catabolic rates in nmol/kg X h revealed that for T4 the rate was greater at 10 than at 35 degrees C (P less than 0.001) and on a high than on a low intake (P less than 0.01). Similar differences were found between the mean values of T3 with respect to both temperature and energy intake, but the variance was large and they did not reach statistical significance. It is concluded that the metabolism of thyroid hormones is influenced independently by both ambient temperature and energy intake.

Sex Addiction Caused by Stress and Trauma

Stress underlies addiction.  The HPA axis controls the human response to stress, and HPA hyperactivation appears in behavioral disorders including hypersexuality:

“A dysregulation of the hypothalamic pituitary adrenal (HPA) axis has been shown in psychiatric disorders…the diagnosis of hypersexual disorder was significantly associated DST non-suppression and higher plasma DST-ACTH even when adjusted for childhood trauma. The results suggest HPA axis dysregulation in male patients with hypersexual disorder.”

Researchers administered dexamethasone, which inhibits the stress-response, but hypersexual patients had a resistance to the drug.

“Patients with hypersexual disorder were significantly more often DST non-suppressors and had significantly higher DST-ACTH levels compared to healthy volunteers.”

Those with hypersexuality suffer from childhood trauma and depression with the degree of trauma corresponding to HPA activation in adulthood:

“The patients reported significantly more childhood trauma and depression symptoms compared to healthy volunteers. Childhood trauma questionnaire (CQT) scores showed a significant negative correlation with DST-ACTH whereas SCS and HD:CAS scores showed a negative correlation with baseline cortisol in patients.”

Sexual thoughts elevate testosterone in women:

“Previous research suggests that sexual stimuli increase testosterone (T) in women and shows inconsistent effects of sexual arousal on cortisol (C), but effects of cognitive aspects of arousal, rather than behaviors or sensory stimuli, are unclear. The present study examined whether sexual thoughts affect T or C and whether hormonal contraceptive (HC) use moderated this effect, given mixed findings of HC use confounding hormone responses. Participants (79 women) provided a baseline saliva sample for radioimmunoassay. We created the Imagined Social Situation Exercise (ISSE) to test effects of imagining social interactions on hormones, and participants were assigned to the experimental (sexual) or one of three control (positive, neutral, stressful) conditions. Participants provided a second saliva sample 15 min post-activity. Results indicated that for women not using HCs, the sexual condition increased T compared to the stressful or positive conditions. In contrast, HC using women in the sexual condition had decreased T relative to the stressful condition and similar T to the positive condition. The effect was specific to T, as sexual thoughts did not change C. For participants in the sexual condition, higher baseline T predicted larger increases in sexual arousal but smaller increases in T, likely due to ceiling effects on T. Our results suggest that sexual thoughts change T but not C, baseline T levels and HC use may contribute to variation in the T response to sexual thoughts, and cognitive aspects of sexual arousal affect physiology.”

Sexual thoughts stimulate an increase in testosterone and cortisol:

“Sexual stimuli increase testosterone (T) or cortisol (C) in males of a variety of species, including humans, and just thinking about sex increases T in women. We investigated whether sexual thoughts change T or C in men and whether hormone measures (baseline, post-activity, and changes) correlate with psychological sexual arousal.  We used the Imagined Social Situation Exercise to assess how hormones respond to and correlate with sexual thoughts and arousal relative to three control conditions: neutral, stressful, and positive.  A total of 99 men provided a baseline saliva sample, imagined and wrote about a sexual or control situation, and provided a second saliva sample 15 min later. Results indicated that, for participants in the sexual condition, higher baseline and post-activity C [cortisol] corresponded to larger increases in self- reported sexual and autonomic arousal. Although sexual thoughts increased sexual arousal, they did not change T or C compared to control conditions. Our results suggest that sexual thoughts are not sufficient to change T or C in men, but C [cortisol] may facilitate sexual arousal by directing energy towards a sexual situation.“

Lowered cortisol increases individual resilience to stress and suppresses addictive behaviors.

References

Chatzittofis, A., Arver, S., Öberg, K., Hallberg, J., Nordström, P., & Jokinen, J. (2016). HPA axis dysregulation in men with hypersexual disorder. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 63, 247–253. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psyneuen.2015.10.002
Hypersexual disorder integrating pathophysiological aspects such as sexual desire deregulation, sexual addiction, impulsivity and compulsivity was suggested as a diagnosis for the DSM-5. However, little is known about the neurobiology behind this disorder. A dysregulation of the hypothalamic pituitary adrenal (HPA) axis has been shown in psychiatric disorders but has not been investigated in hypersexual disorder. The aim of this study was to investigate the function of the HPA axis in hypersexual disorder. The study includes 67 male patients with hypersexual disorder and 39 healthy male volunteers. Basal morning plasma levels of cortisol and ACTH were assessed and low dose (0.5mg) dexamethasone suppression test was performed with cortisol and ACTH measured post dexamethasone administration. Non-suppression status was defined with DST-cortisol levels ≥ 138 nmol/l. The Sexual Compulsive scale (SCS), Hypersexual disorder current assessment scale (HD:CAS), Montgomery-Åsberg Depression Scale-self rating (MADRS-S) and Childhood trauma questionnaire (CTQ), were used for assessing hypersexual behavior, depression severity and early life adversity. Patients with hypersexual disorder were significantly more often DST non-suppressors and had significantly higher DST-ACTH levels compared to healthy volunteers. The patients reported significantly more childhood trauma and depression symptoms compared to healthy volunteers. CTQ scores showed a significant negative correlation with DST-ACTH whereas SCS and HD:CAS scores showed a negative correlation with baseline cortisol in patients. The diagnosis of hypersexual disorder was significantly associated DST non-suppression and higher plasma DST-ACTH even when adjusted for childhood trauma. The results suggest HPA axis dysregulation in male patients with hypersexual disorder.

Goldey, K. L., & van Anders, S. M. (2012). Sexual thoughts: links to testosterone and cortisol in men. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 41(6), 1461–1470. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-011-9858-6

Sexual stimuli increase testosterone (T) or cortisol (C) in males of a variety of species, including humans, and just thinking about sex increases T in women. We investigated whether sexual thoughts change T or C in men and whether hormone measures (baseline, post-activity, and changes) correlate with psychological sexual arousal. We used the Imagined Social Situation Exercise to assess how hormones respond to and correlate with sexual thoughts and arousal relative to three control conditions: neutral, stressful, and positive. A total of 99 men provided a baseline saliva sample, imagined and wrote about a sexual or control situation, and provided a second saliva sample 15 min later. Results indicated that, for participants in the sexual condition, higher baseline and post-activity C corresponded to larger increases in self- reported sexual and autonomic arousal. Although sexual thoughts increased sexual arousal, they did not change T or C compared to control conditions. Our results suggest that sexual thoughts are not sufficient to change T or C in men, but C may facilitate sexual arousal by directing energy towards a sexual situation.

Goldey, K. L., & van Anders, S. M. (2011). Sexy thoughts: effects of sexual cognitions on testosterone, cortisol, and arousal in women. Hormones and Behavior, 59(5), 754–764. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yhbeh.2010.12.005

Previous research suggests that sexual stimuli increase testosterone (T) in women and shows inconsistent effects of sexual arousal on cortisol (C), but effects of cognitive aspects of arousal, rather than behaviors or sensory stimuli, are unclear. The present study examined whether sexual thoughts affect T or C and whether hormonal contraceptive (HC) use moderated this effect, given mixed findings of HC use confounding hormone responses. Participants (79 women) provided a baseline saliva sample for radioimmunoassay. We created the Imagined Social Situation Exercise (ISSE) to test effects of imagining social interactions on hormones, and participants were assigned to the experimental (sexual) or one of three control (positive, neutral, stressful) conditions. Participants provided a second saliva sample 15 min post-activity. Results indicated that for women not using HCs, the sexual condition increased T compared to the stressful or positive conditions. In contrast, HC using women in the sexual condition had decreased T relative to the stressful condition and similar T to the positive condition. The effect was specific to T, as sexual thoughts did not change C. For participants in the sexual condition, higher baseline T predicted larger increases in sexual arousal but smaller increases in T, likely due to ceiling effects on T. Our results suggest that sexual thoughts change T but not C, baseline T levels and HC use may contribute to variation in the T response to sexual thoughts, and cognitive aspects of sexual arousal affect physiology.